Counteracting mental fatigue for athletes: a systematic review of the interventions.

The deleterious effects of mental fatigue (MF) on athletes have been carefully studied in various sports, such as soccer, badminton, and swimming. Even though many researchers have sought ways to ameliorate the negative impact of MF, there is still a lack of studies that review the interventions used to counteract MF among athletes. This review aims to report the current evidence exploring the effects of interventions on MF and sport-specific performance, including sport-specific motor performance and perceptual-cognitive skills. Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, and SPORTDicus (EBSCOhost) were combed through to find relevant publications. Additionally, the references and Google Scholar were searched for any grey literature. For the current review, we included only randomized controlled trials that involved athletes, a primary task to induce MF, interventions to counter MF with comparable protocols, and the outcomes of sport-specific motor performance and perceptual-cognitive skill. The selection criteria resulted in the inclusion of 10 articles. The manipulations of autonomous self-control exertion, person-fit, nature exposure, mindfulness, and transactional direct current stimulation showed that positive interventions counteract MF and improve sport-specific performance in different domains, including strength, speed, skill, stamina, and perceptual-cognitive skills. The selected interventions could significantly counteract MF and improve subsequent sport-specific performance. Moreover, self-regulation and attention resources showed the importance of the potential mechanisms behind the relevant interventions.

Expert goalkeepers' and coaches' views on anticipation and cue utilisation facing backcourt throws in handball goalkeeping.

Introduction: Handball goalkeepers have to act under severe spatio-temporal pressure in both standardised (e.g., 7 m penalty) and non-standardised situations (e.g., backcourt throws) which require them to predict action outcome before ball flight is visible. So far, research on goalkeepers' cue utilisation for anticipation of an opponent's action has mainly focused on 7 m throw situations whereas little attention has been paid to the latter, more complex and far more frequently occurring backcourt throw situations. Methods: To address this gap, we conducted semi-structured interviews with N = 6 expert handball goalkeepers and goalkeeper coaches [all of whom were (former) expert handball goalkeepers] on anticipation and cue utilisation when facing backcourt throws. The interviews were subsequently transcribed, coded and results were inductively as well as deductively categorised by means of a thematic analysis. Results: Results reveal a variety of kinematic and contextual cues relevant for action anticipation that become available before the game and before or during the throw. Participants reported to use information from the offence (e.g., thrower's jump; opposing team's task distribution) and the defence (e.g., defensive players' strategies, block position) for anticipation in backcourt throw situations. Additionally, we identified several factors that influence cue availability and utilisation. Discussion: Our findings provide a thorough basis to (a) guide future research that yields questions on kinematic and contextual cue integration and in-situ cue usage as well as (b) inform the development of training programs to foster goalkeepers' anticipatory skill.

Young Basketball Players' Multiple Object Tracking Skills Were Unaffected by Stroop-Induced Mental Fatigue.

We aimed to examine the acute effect of mental fatigue on young basketball players' three-dimensional multiple object tracking (3D-MOT) skills. Our participants were 12 adolescent basketball players (M age = 16.66, SD = 1.87 years; M years of practice = 2.66, SD = 1.07 years). In nine lab visits, we used visits 1 to 7 to familiarize participants with 3D-MOT, a subjective scale of mental fatigue, and a Stroop task involving mental set shifting. In the last two visits, participants performed in both experimental (EXP) and control (CON) conditions that were presented in randomized order. In the EXP condition, participants performed 3D-MOT pre- and post-60 minutes of induced mental fatigue; in the CON condition, they watched a documentary. After each condition, B participants performed the National Aeronautics and Space Administration Task Load Index (NASA-TLX). 3D-MOT performance measures were the "score" and "fastest trial score success." The response time on the Stroop tasks increased throughout the mental fatigue inducement in the experimental condition (p = .0037). The NASA-TLX responses were higher following the EXP condition than following the CON condition for mental demand, temporal demand, and performance (all ps < .05). Still, there were no significant EXP versus CON differences on the 3D-MOT performance indicators.

XR Programmers Give Their Perspective on How XR Technology can be Effectively Utilised in High-Performance Sport.

BACKGROUND: The successful use of extended reality (XR) in sport is highly dependent on the extent to which it can represent the perception-action couplings that exist in the performance setting. However, there are many unknowns regarding the effectiveness of XR technology which is limiting its adoption in sport. Therefore, providing high-performance sporting organisations with more information about the efficacy and utility of XR, specifically its strengths and limitations, is warranted. RESULTS: The results provide insight into the limitations of XR and how those limitations are likely to reduce the effectiveness of XR for training motor skills. The participants described opportunities provided by XR for measuring athlete performance and highlighted several practical applications for enhancing athlete and coaching performance. Using artificial intelligence (AI) for training tactical decision-making and creating new movement solutions was also a key finding. CONCLUSIONS: The use of XR in sport is in its infancy, and more research is required to establish a deeper understanding of its utility and efficacy. This research provides sporting organisations, coaches, athletes, and XR technology companies with insights into where XR technology can have the greatest positive impact on performance in sport.

Validation of “TesTactico for F7”: A tool to analyse Declarative Tactical Knowledge based on a Football Competence Observation System / Validación de “TesTactico para F7”: Una herramienta para analizar el Conocimiento Táctico Declarativo basada en un Sistema de Observación de la Competencia Futbolística / Validação do “TesTactico F7”: Um instrumento para analisar o Conhecimento Tático Declarativo baseado em um Sistema de Observação da Competência Futebolística

Este estudio tuvo como objetivo diseñar y validar una prueba de respuesta múltiple con imágenes de situaciones de juego del fútbol para evaluar el conocimiento táctico declarativo (CTD) del jugador. “TesTactico para F7” (fútbol-7) está compuesto por 62 situaciones de juego relacionadas con los criterios (fases, roles, acciones de los subroles adquiridos, principios operacionales y fundamentales/específicos) del Sistema de Observación de la Competencia Futbolística (FOCOS), analizando 67 variables. El coeficiente de validez de contenido (9.63/10) se estimó mediante grupo de expertos (n=13), calculando grado de acuerdo y aceptación. La validez de constructo se calculó mediante la prueba T-Student para muestras independientes. Participaron 155 jóvenes futbolistas organizados según su competencia futbolística (alta=80; baja=75). El cálculo del tamaño de la muestra post-hoc usando G*Power reveló .93 de poder (d=0.5, p=0.5). Se utilizó la corrección de Bonferroni para controlar la tasa de error familiar en cada criterio. Los resultados reflejaron que el grupo de alto nivel fue mejor en las 67 variables, con diferencias significativas (p ≤ .008) en 38 de ellas. También se calculó el tamaño del efecto d-Cohen para evaluar la magnitud de diferencias que fueron grandes (d = 1.38) para el Promedio Total. La fiabilidad de la herramienta se determinó a nivel inter-observador mediante el índice de concordancia kappa de Fleiss (k = .882), y a nivel intra-observador mediante el método test-retest utilizando kappa de Cohen (k = 1.000). La consistencia interna fue estimada a través del coeficiente alfa de Cronbach (α = .925). El análisis de generalizabilidad mostró también una excelente fiabilidad (G =.985) y una representatividad perfecta (r2 = 1.00), evidenciándose que la variabilidad es explicada por las situaciones de juego que componen el test. Se concluye que el instrumento presenta valores óptimos de validez y confiabilidad. (AU)

This study aimed to design and validate a multi-response test with images of football game-play situations to evaluate the player's declarative tactical knowledge (DTK). “TesTactico for F7” (seven-a-side football) is made up of 62 game-play situations related to the criteria (phases, roles, actions of the acquired subroles, operational and core/specific principles) of the Football Competence Observation System (FOCOS), analysing a total of 67 variables. The content validity coefficient (9.63 out of 10) was estimated via expert group (n=13), calculating the averages of the degree of agreement and acceptance of the experts. The construct validity was calculated using Student's T-testfor independent samples. 155 young football players participated according to their football competence (high-level=80; low-level=75). The post-hoc sample size calculation using G*Power revealed .93 of power (d=0.5, p=0.5). Bonferroni correction was used to control the family-wise error rate in each criterion. The results reflected that the high-level group was better in the 67 variables, with significant differences (p ≤ .008) in 38 of them. Cohen’s d-effect size was also calculated to assess the magnitude of the difference between both groups, which were large (d = 1.38) for the Total Average. The reliability of the tool was determined at the inter-observer level using the Fleiss kappa index of concordance (k = .882), and at the intra-observer level through the test-retest method using the Cohen kappa index (k = 1.000). Internal consistency was estimated through Cronbach's alpha coefficient (α = .925). The generalizability analysis also showed excellent reliability (G = .985) and perfect representativeness(r2 = 1.00), showing that the variability is explained by the game-play situations that make up the test. It is concluded that the instrument shows optimal validity and reliability values (AU)

Este estudo teve como objetivo validar um teste de múltipla escolha com imagens de situações de jogo de futebol para avaliar o conhecimento tático declarativo (CTD) do jogador. O "TesTactico F7" (futebol-7) é composto por 62 situações de jogo relacionadas com os critérios do Sistema de Observação da Competência Futebolística (FOCOS), analisando 67 variáveis. O coeficiente de validade de conteúdo (9,63/10) foi estimado por um grupo de especialistas (n=13), calculando o grau de concordância e aceitação. A validade de construto foi calculada usando a T-Student para amostras independentes. Participaram 155 jovens jogadores de futebol, organizados de acordo com sua competência futebolística (alta=80; baixa=75). O cálculo do tamanho da amostra post-hoc usando G*Power revelou poder de 0.93 (d=0.5, p=0.5). A correção de Bonferroni foi usada para controlar a taxa de erro em cada critério. Os resultados mostraram que o grupo de alto nível foi melhor nas 67 variáveis, com diferenças significativas (p ≤ .008) em 38 delas. O tamanho do efeito d-Cohen também foi calculado para avaliar a magnitude das diferenças entre os dois grupos, que foram grandes (d = 1.38) para o Escore Total. A confiabilidade do instrumento foi determinada no nível interobservador pelo índice de concordância Fleiss kappa (k = .882), e no nível intraobservador pelo método teste-reteste usando o kappa de Cohen (k = 1.000). A consistência interna foi estimadapor meio do coeficiente alfa de Cronbach (α = 0,925). A análise de generalização também apresentou excelente confiabilidade (G = .985) e representatividade perfeita (r2 = 1.00), mostrando que a variabilidade é explicada pelas situações de jogo que compõemo teste. Conclui-se que o instrumento apresenta valores ótimos de validade e confiabilidade. (AU)

Can Prolongate Use of Social Media Immediately Before Training Worsen High Level Male Volleyball Players' Visuomotor Skills?

Our aim was to analyze the effect of mental fatigue caused by prolonged social media use on high-level volleyball players' visuomotor skills. Eighteen high-level male young volleyball players participated in this randomized, counterbalanced, crossover design. All participants underwent a 2-week experiment in which we measured their response times when performing a visuomotor task with and without mental fatigue inducement through repeated use of social media immediately before training sessions. In the control condition, participants watched TV for 30-minutes, and in the social media condition, they used a social media app (Instagram®) on smartphones for 30-minutes. We found a significant Condition x Time interaction on visuomotor task response time (p = 0.03), but there was no significant main effect of either Time or Condition. Mental fatigue, induced by repeated app-based social media use for 30-minutes immediately before training sessions, affected elite male volleyball players' visuomotor skills.

Does anticipation of penalty kicks in soccer transfer across similar and dissimilar sports?

The aim of the present study was to examine whether anticipation skill associated with penalty-kick scenarios is sport-specific, or whether it transfers between sports that have similar elements. A shortened participation history questionnaire was used to identify 97 soccer players, 47 invasion sport players (e.g., rugby), and 72 other sport players (e.g., swimming), as well as skill level (hours of engagement/competition level). These participants completed a video-based temporal occlusion anticipation test that required them to select the destination of the ball across a series of soccer penalty scenarios. Results indicated that the skilled soccer players were more accurate than the skilled and less-skilled invasion sport players and skilled and less-skilled other sport players. Skilled soccer players were also more accurate than the less-skilled soccer players, with less-skilled soccer players exhibiting similar accuracy to both the skilled and less-skilled invasion sport and other sport players indicating that processes associated with anticipation of penalty kicks may be specific to their sport.

The Adverse Effect of Anxiety on Dynamic Anticipation Performance.

Anticipation is a crucial perceptual-cognitive skill in fast-ball sports, and the effect of high anxiety on performance has attracted more attention from sports psychologists. Related studies mainly focus on the effect of anxiety on influencing processing efficiency and attentional control (top-down vs. bottom-up) during information processing in sport. Attentional Control Theory (ACT) has been supported by several studies. However, these studies have been criticized by the low ecological validity of task design, such as neglecting the dynamic process of anticipation, and inadequate performance analysis, such as analyzing response accuracy and time separately. Using temporal occlusion paradigm, we tested ACT in a dynamic anticipation process. Eighteen skilled and eighteen less-skilled table tennis players were required to anticipate the serves of opponents under dynamic task constraints (early vs. late occlusion) and anxiety conditions (high vs. low anxiety). High cognitive state anxiety decreased processing efficiency (response time/response accuracy) for both groups whereas performance effectiveness (response accuracy) did not differ. In addition, it negatively affected processing efficiency in early anticipation compared with late anticipation tasks, suggesting that high cognitive state anxiety may have a greater impact on top-down attentional control. Our findings provide support for ACT and show that anxiety impairs anticipation efficiency and performance, possibly due to an ineffectively attentional shift from external kinematic cues to internal long-term working memory. Findings also have implications for the adaptation of attentional strategies and anxiolytic training.

Varying Degrees of Perception-Action Coupling and Anticipation in Handball Goalkeeping.

Anticipation in sports is commonly investigated using perception-action uncoupled methods, thus raising questions regarding transferability of findings to the field. The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of different degrees of perception-action coupling on anticipation in handball goalkeeping. Advanced, intermediate and novice handball goalkeepers watched videos of throws on the goal and were asked to anticipate throw direction via key press (perception-action artificial condition) and via natural movement response (perception-action simulated condition). Results reveal overall superior performance in the artificial compared to the simulated condition. Skill-based differences, however, were descriptively more pronounced in the simulated condition compared to the artificial condition. The findings further highlight the importance of more representative research methods to unravel perceptual-cognitive skill in sports.

Howzat! Expert umpires use a gaze anchor to overcome the processing demands of leg before wicket decisions.

Cricket umpires are required to make high-pressure, match-changing decisions based on multiple complex information sources under severe temporal constraints. The aim of this study was to examine the decision-making and perceptual-cognitive differences between expert and novice cricket umpires when judging leg before wicket (LBW) decisions. Twelve expert umpires and 19 novice umpires were fitted with an eye-tracker before viewing video-based LBW appeals. Dependent variables were radial error (cm), number of fixations, average fixation duration (ms), final fixation duration (ms), and final fixation location (%). Expert umpires were significantly more accurate at adjudicating on all aspects of the LBW law, compared to the novice umpires (p < .05). The expert umpires' final fixation prior to ball-pad contact was directed significantly more towards the stumps (p < .05), whereas the novice umpires directed their final fixation significantly more towards a good length (p < .05). These data suggest that expert umpires utilize specialized perceptual-cognitive skills, consisting of a gaze anchor on the stumps in order to overcome the processing demands of the task. These data have implications for the training of current and aspiring umpires in order to enhance the accuracy of LBW decision-making across all levels of the cricketing pyramid.

Context Affects Quiet Eye Duration and Motor Performance Independent of Cognitive Effort.

Extensive literature has shown the effect of "quiet eye" (QE) on motor performance. However, little attention has been paid to the context in which tasks are executed (independent of anxiety) and the mechanisms that underpin the phenomenon. Here, the authors aimed to investigate the effects of context (independent of anxiety) on QE and performance while examining if the mechanisms underpinning QE are rooted in cognitive effort. In this study, 21 novice participants completed golf putts while pupil dilation, QE duration, and putting accuracy were measured. Results showed that putting to win was more accurate compared with the control (no context) condition, and QE duration was longer when putting to win or tie a hole compared with control. There was no effect of context on pupil dilation. Results suggest that, while the task was challenging, performance scenarios can enhance representativeness of practice without adding additional load to cognitive resources, even for novice performers.

TacticUP Video Test for Soccer: Development and Validation.

This study aims to expand the process of tactical assessment of soccer players through the development and validation of a video-based test based on core tactical principles of play. The TacticUP video test for soccer is composed of offensive and defensive video sequences of 11vs11 soccer situations. Participants should choose the most appropriate solution for each video sequence. Content validity was established based on a panel of nine experts from four different countries. Construct validity was assessed through the comparison between players with distinct expertise levels. Comparisons between groups' final scores showed statistical differences (p < 0.05) in 10 out of the 15 variables assessed, in which the expert group displayed higher values compared to the non-expert group. Face validity examined the acceptability and suitability of the test by players. Reliability was determined through the test-retest method for each video sequence, and Cohen's Kappa values ranged from 0.622 to 1.0. Therefore, the TacticUP video test showed adequate content, construct, and face validity and was a reliable measure of perceptual-cognitive and decision-making skills in soccer. We overcame limitations from previous video-based tests in soccer by introducing situations concerning off-the-ball movements in both offensive and defensive phases. The practical applications of this test are: (i) it can be used to monitor players' perceptual-cognitive and decision-making skills; (ii) the test is based on players' response selection in a video-based test, which enables the measurement of their perceptual-cognitive and decision-making skills based on the core tactical principles of play; (iii) generate players' tactical profile considering their perceptual-cognitive and decision-making skills based on core tactical principles of play; and (iv) measure the effectiveness of intervention/training programs on the development of perceptual-cognitive and decision-making skills.

Using 360° virtual reality as a decision-making assessment tool in sport.

OBJECTIVES: To examine the reliability, construct validity and ecological validity of 360° VR and match broadcast footage for off-field decision-making assessment in Australian football umpires. DESIGN: Validation assessments with test re-test reliability. METHODS: Two video-based tests of 60 clips each were developed to assess Australian football umpire decision-making, including 360° video of small-sided Australian football games and match broadcast footage of AFL games. Elite (n = 13) and amateur (n = 15) umpires participated in two testing sessions, in a randomised, counterbalanced design. Test re-test reliability was assessed using Cohen's Kappa for individual clips and Intraclass Correlation Coefficients for test scores. Video tests were assessed for construct validity. Ecological validity of the decision-making processes was assessed for each method. RESULTS: 31 clips met the minimum Kappa criteria for the 360° VR test and 28 clips for match broadcast. Results indicated strong reliability for the 360° VR (ICC = 0.89) and match broadcast (ICC = 0.89) tests. For both video modes, elite umpires performed significantly better in decision-making accuracy than amateur (p < 0.05). For ecological validity of the decision-making processes, 360° VR was rated significantly higher than match broadcast vision (p < 0.05) overall. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first study to examine the reliability and validity of 360° VR footage as an off-field decision-making assessment tool in sport. As match broadcast vision is commonly used to assess decision-making in athletes and officials, results suggest that 360° VR is also an appropriate assessment tool. Although both video modes demonstrate similar reliability and construct validity, 360° VR was considered more specific to in-game decision-making processes, suggesting stronger ecological validity.

The role of contextual information during skilled anticipation.

In dynamic, temporally constrained tasks, individuals often need to anticipate what will happen next prior to information becoming available within the environment. In such situations, the availability of contextual information can facilitate anticipation, often in conjunction with postural information. While many researchers have identified the specific sources of postural information facilitating anticipation, few have investigated the specific sources of contextual information employed. In two experiments, we presented skilled and less-skilled tennis players with animations of rallies from real matches that omitted access to postural information from the opponent, constraining participants to anticipate based on contextual information alone. In Experiment 1, participants anticipated the outcome of an opponent's shot under three conditions in which the sequence length (i.e., number of shots in a rally) preceding the same occluded shot was varied. Participants anticipated shot direction more accurately when the preceding shot sequence was presented than not. In Experiment 2, we presented animations that depicted the ball, the players, or both, in either dynamic or still form. Those conditions in which only the ball was depicted yielded the lowest response accuracy scores. It appears that information from the player and ball motion is required to provide the context under which skilled performers can consciously pick up and utilise information to anticipate more accurately than their less-skilled counterparts.

The effect of anxiety on anticipation, allocation of attentional resources, and visual search behaviours.

Successful sports performance requires athletes to be able to mediate any detrimental effects of anxiety whilst being able to complete tasks simultaneously. In this study, we examine how skill level influences the ability to mediate the effects of anxiety on anticipation performance and the capacity to allocate attentional resources to concurrent tasks. We use a counterbalanced, repeated measures design that required expert and novice badminton players to complete a film-based anticipation test in which they predicted serve direction under high- and low-anxiety conditions. On selected trials, participants completed an auditory secondary task. Visual search data were recorded and the Mental Readiness Form v-3 was used to measure cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety and self-confidence. The Rating Scale of Mental Effort was used to measure mental effort. The expert players outperformed their novice counterparts on the anticipation task across both anxiety conditions, with both groups anticipation performance deteriorating under high- compared to low-anxiety. This decrease across anxiety conditions was significantly greater in the novice compared to the expert group. High-anxiety resulted in a shorter final visual fixation duration for both groups when compared to low-anxiety. Anxiety had a negative impact on secondary task performance for the novice, but not the expert group. Our findings suggest that expert athletes more effectively allocated attentional resources during performance under high-anxiety conditions. In contrast, novice athletes used more attentional resources when completing the primary task and, therefore, were unable to maintain secondary task performance under high-anxiety.

Quiet eye facilitates sensorimotor preprograming and online control of precision aiming in golf putting.

An occlusion protocol was used to elucidate the respective roles of preprograming and online control during the quiet eye period of golf putting. Twenty-one novice golfers completed golf putts to 6-ft and 11-ft targets under full vision or with vision occluded on initiation of the backswing. Radial error (RE) was higher, and quiet eye was longer, when putting to the 11-ft versus 6-ft target, and in the occluded versus full vision condition. Quiet eye durations, as well as preprograming, online and dwell durations, were longer in low-RE compared to high-RE trials. The preprograming component of quiet eye was significantly longer in the occluded vision condition, whereas the online and dwell components were significantly longer in the full vision condition. These findings demonstrate an increase in preprograming when vision is occluded. However, this was not sufficient to overcome the need for online visual control during the quiet eye period. These findings suggest the quiet eye period is composed of preprograming and online control elements; however, online visual control of action is critical to performance.

Quiet Eye and Performance in Sport: A Meta-Analysis.

Research linking the "quiet eye" (QE) period to subsequent performance has not been systematically synthesized. In this paper we review the literature on the link between the two through nonintervention (Synthesis 1) and intervention (Synthesis 2) studies. In the first synthesis, 27 studies with 38 effect sizes resulted in a large mean effect (d = 1.04) reflecting differences between experts' and novices' QE periods, and a moderate effect size (d = 0.58) comparing QE periods for successful and unsuccessful performances within individuals. Studies reporting QE duration as a percentage of the total time revealed a larger mean effect size than studies reporting an absolute duration (in milliseconds). The second synthesis of 9 articles revealed very large effect sizes for both the quiet-eye period (d = 1.53) and performance (d = 0.84). QE also showed some ability to predict performance effects across studies.

How do they make it look so easy? The expert orienteer's cognitive advantage.

Expertise in sport can appear so extraordinary that it is difficult to imagine how "normal" individuals may achieve it. However, in this review, we show that experts in the sport of orienteering, which requires on-foot navigation using map and compass through wild terrain, can make the difficult look easy because they have developed a cognitive advantage. Specifically, they have acquired knowledge of cognitive and behavioural strategies that allow them to circumvent natural limitations on attention. Cognitive strategies include avoiding peaks of demand on attention by distributing the processing of map information over time and reducing the need to attend to the map by simplifying the navigation required to complete a race. Behavioural strategies include reducing the visual search required of the map by physically arranging and rearranging the map display during races. It is concluded that expertise in orienteering can be partly attributed to the circumvention of natural limitations on attention achieved via the employment of acquired cognitive and behavioural strategies. Thus, superior performance in sport may not be the possession of only a privileged few; it may be available to all aspiring athletes.